Blog post by team member Jake:
Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang
The
Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang (originally from
the 6th century CE; this image has been taken from a copy made in the
11th century according to the source on Wikipedia) includes an
(unfortunately damaged) artistic representation of an emissary from the
"WÅ country" and a description of this country in Classical Chinese. I
have placed a red box around the relevant parts of the image.
This "WÅ country" seems to be (at least a part of) protohistorical Japan, but the precise location of
the seat of the country's supreme ruler
is debated endlessly among Japanese historians and archaeologists. What
do you think about the attire of this WÅ emissary to Liang of China?
( In later centuries, the character for "Wa/Wo" (倭) did come to be used to
indicate the Japanese ethnicity. The euphemistic character that has
been chosen to substitute for it, 和, is used by the modern Japanese in
pseudo-Sinitic (a.k.a. "Sino-Japanese") coinages to mean "Japanese" (
e.g. 和食
washoku "Japanese food," 和語
wago "(native) Japanese words," 和服
wafuku
"Japanese clothing"). However, I do not know of any direct evidence to
link the early references to "Wa/Wo" in Chinese historical texts with a
specifically Japonic- or proto-Japonic-speaking population.)
By the way, the legible part of the damaged text that accompanies the
depiction of the emissary from Wo to Liang reads as follows:
倭國使
倭國在帶方東南大海中依山島居自帶方循海水乍南下東對
其北岸歷三十餘國可万餘里倭王所？？在會稽東氣暖地溫
出真珠青玉無牛馬虎豹羊鵲？？？？面文身以木棉帖首衣
橫幅無縫但結{以下缺文}
Wo Country Emissary
Wo
Country is located southeast of Daifang, in the midst of the great sea.
[They] dwell upon mountainous islands. From Daifang, [one] follows the
sea water to the south and then east. Against
its north coast, [one] passes more than thirty states [over a distance of] somewhat more than 10,000
li. The place where the Wo sovereign [??]s is located east of
Guiji/Kuaiji. The air is warm and the land is mild.
[It]
produces pearls and jade. [It] lacks cows, horses, tigers, leopards,
sheep, magpies...[????] faces [and] draw designs on [their] bodies.
[They] dress [their] heads with cotton. [Their] clothing
is a long piece of cloth that is not sewn, but tied... {The text after this point has been utterly destroyed.}
The Book of Sui
The
following is a rough draft of my translation of the section of the Book
of Sui regarding the "Wo country." This section is positioned last in
the chapter on "Tales of the Eastern Barbarians (東夷伝)."
倭國、在百濟、新羅
東南、水陸三千里、於大海之中依山島而居。魏時、譯通中國、三十餘國、皆自稱王。夷人不知里數、但計以日。其國境東西五月行、南北三月行、各至於海。其地
勢東高西下。都於邪靡堆、則魏志所謂邪馬臺者也。古云去樂浪郡境及帶方郡並一萬二千里、在會稽之東、與儋耳相近。
Wō country is
located three thousand li by water and land southeast of Baekje and
Silla, on island(s) amidst the great sea. In the time of Wei, more than
thirty states held association with the Middle Kingdom, (their
representatives/interpreters) all calling themselves wáng (“king”). The
Yí (eastern barbarian) people do not know the counting of li (Chinese
miles), but measure by days. The country’s borders are five months’
travel east-west, three months’ travel north-south, extending to the sea
in every direction. The lay of the land is high in the east and low in
the west. They have their capital at Yámíduī (“evil/wrong/heretical
wasteful/dissipate/decompose/corrupt heap/pile/stack”), which is what is
called Yámǎtái (“evil/wrong/heretical horse
platform/stage/tower/lookout/altar”) in the Wèi Zhì. The ancients say
that it is 12,000 li from the border of Lelang Commandery and Daifang
Commandery, located east of Kuàijī (ancient northern Zhejiang), close
to(/similar to) Dān’ěr (ancient Hainan).
漢光武時、遣使入朝、自稱大夫。安帝時、又遣使朝
貢、謂之倭奴國。桓、靈之間、其國大亂、遞相攻伐、歴年無主。有女子名卑彌呼、能以鬼道惑衆、於是國人共立為王。有男弟、佐卑彌理國。其王有侍婢千人、罕
有見其面者、唯有男子二人給王飲食、通傳言語。其王有宮室樓觀、城柵皆持兵守衛、為法甚嚴。自魏至于齊、梁、代與中國相通。
In the
time of Guangwu of Han, they dispatched an embassy to see the emperor at
court, calling themselves dàfū (a category of senior official in feudal
China < “big married man”). In the time of Emperor An (of Han), they
again dispatched an embassy and paid tribute to the imperial court;
they call this the Wōnú (“Wō slave”) country. For the duration of (the
reigns of) Huan and Ling (of Han), their country was in great turmoil,
successively attacking and retaliating against one another, going
through years without a sovereign. There was a female named Bēimǐhū
(“low/debased/mean/inferior/humble full/fill/complete
exhale/call/cry.out/shout”) who was able to use the way of
ghosts/demons/monsters to delude the populace, whereupon the people of
the country revered (or “in unison established”) her as queen. She had a
younger brother (or younger brothers) who assisted Bēimǐ in governing
the country. The queen had a thousand maidservants, but there was seldom
anyone who saw her face; there was only a pair of males who served the
queen food and drink and conveyed her words. The queen had palaces great
and small, their bulwarks and palisades all protected by armed guards,
and the law was laid down with utmost rigor. From Wei until the era of
Qi and Liang, their country and the Middle Kingdom have been in
communication with each other.
開皇二十年、倭王姓阿毎、字多利思比孤、號阿輩雞彌、遣使詣闕。上令所司訪其風俗。使者言倭王以天為兄、以日為弟、天未明時出聽政、跏趺坐、日出便停理務、云委我弟。高祖曰：「此太無義理。」於是訓令改之。
In
the twentieth year of Kaihuang (600 CE), the king of Wō, surnamed
Āměi, styled Duōlìsībǐgū, pseudonym Ābèigyīmǐ (
王妻號雞彌、後宮有女六七百人。名太子為利歌彌多弗利。無城
郭。内官有十二等：一曰大德、次小德、次大仁、次小仁、次大義、次小義、次大禮、次小禮、次大智、次小智、次大信、次小信、員無定數。有軍尼一百二十人、
猶中國牧宰。八十戸置一伊尼翼、如今里長也。十伊尼翼屬一軍尼。
The sovereign’s wife is called by the
pseudonym of Gyīmǐ (< Proto-Japanese *kimi “lord; thou”), and he has
six or seven hundred women in his harem. The crown prince is called
Ligemiduofuli (
其服飾、男子衣裙襦、其袖微小、履如屨形、漆其上、繫之於腳。人庶多跣足。不得用金銀為飾。故時衣橫幅、結束相連而無縫。頭亦無冠、但垂髮於兩耳上。
As
for their dress and personal adornment, the men wear a skirt and a
lined vest, its sleeves extremely small. Their footwear is shaped like a
hemp or vine sandal, lacquered on its surface, and fastened to the foot
or lower leg. Most (or many) of the common folk go barefoot. They
cannot (or may not) use gold or silver as personal adornment. In former
times, they wore a single long piece of cloth, tying it together and
without sewing. They also wore no crown on their heads, but they let
their hair down over both ears.
至隋、其王始制冠、以錦綵為之、以金銀鏤花為飾。婦人束髮於後、亦衣裙襦、裳皆有○。攕竹為梳、編草為薦。雜皮為表、縁以文皮。有弓、矢、刀、矟、弩、欑、斧、漆皮為甲、骨為矢鏑。雖有兵、無征戰。其王朝會、必陳設儀仗、奏其國樂。戸可十萬。
Having
reached (the era of) Sui, their sovereign finally fashioned a crown,
using brocade and varicolored silk to make it, and using gold and silver
cutwork flowers for decoration. The married women bundle their hair at
the back, and also wear a skirt and a lined vest, with their lower body
wear all having decorative hems (e.g. frills). They shave bamboo to make
combs and weave grass to make mats. They use sundry skins (or furs) for
the upper surface and rich and brightly colored or patterned skins (or
furs) for the borders. They have bows, arrows, swords (or knives), long
lances, crossbows, short lances (spears?), axes, armor made of lacquered
leather, and arrowheads made of bone. Although they have soldiers (or
weapons), there is no going on expeditions to make war. Whenever their
king holds an audience, he makes sure to put all the banners and weapons
of the guards of honor on display and have his court orchestra perform
music (also may be interpreted to mean “play the music of his country,”
i.e. a particular piece or suite of music, such as a national anthem).
There are perhaps 100,000 households.
其俗殺人強盜及姦皆死、盜者計贓酬物、無財者沒身為奴。自餘輕重、或流或杖。毎訊究獄訟、不承引者、以木壓膝、或張強弓、以弦鋸其項。或置小石於沸湯中、令所競者探之、云理曲者即手爛。或置蛇甕中、令取之、云曲者即螫手矣。
According
to their customs (or “as for their common folk”), (persons found guilty
of) murder, armed robbery, or jiān (an ambiguous Chinese word that
refers to impropriety or wickedness in either political or sexual
relations, e.g. treason, adultery, debauchery, rape; the character used
to write this word looks like “three women,” perhaps from the idea of
polygyny) all die. In the case of common theft, they assess (the value
of) the stolen article(s) and (require) compensation in equivalent
goods; one who does not have property of (the necessary) value loses his
personal freedom and becomes a slave. For the remainder of cases, (the
condemned) is either exiled (to a remote island) or caned according to
the severity of the crime. Whenever they are investigating a case or
trying a lawsuit, and (the suspect) does not confess, they apply
downward pressure to the knees with wood or draw a tight bow and saw
away at the nape of the neck with the bowstring. Or they place a small
stone in boiling water and order the contested one to retrieve this,
saying that the hand of one who is without reason will fester. Or they
place a snake in an earthen jar and order (him) to take it out, saying
that one who is wrong (or wicked) will have his hand stricken with
venom.
人頗恬靜、罕爭訟、少盜賊。樂有五弦、琴、笛。男女多黥臂點面文身、沒水捕魚。無文字、唯刻木結繩。敬佛法、於百濟求得佛經、始有文字。知卜筮、尤信巫覡。
The
people are quite calm and quiet. They seldom argue or litigate, and
there are few thieves or robbers (bandits). As for music, they have the
“five-string,” the bridgeless zither, and the flute. For both men and
women, many (or most) tattoo their arms, dot their faces, and draw
patterns on their bodies. They dive into the water to catch fish. They
(used to) not have written letters, only carving (marks in) wood or
tying (knots in) a cord. They respect the law of the Buddha; they sought
and obtained Buddhist sutras from Baekje, and thereupon first came to
have written letters. They know augury (using tortoise shells and yarrow
stalks), and are especially trusting of oracles and shamans (both male
and female).
毎至正月一日、必射戲飲酒、其餘節略與華同。好棋博、握槊、樗蒲之戲。氣候温暖、草木冬青、土地膏腴、水多陸
少。以小環挂鸕○項、令入水捕魚、日得百餘頭。俗無盤俎、藉以檞葉、食用手餔之。性質直、有雅風。女多男少、婚嫁不取同姓、男女相悅者即為婚。婦入夫家、
必先跨犬〔2〕、乃與夫相見。婦人不淫妒。
Every time the first day of the new year comes
round, they will shoot (arrows), perform plays (or “play shooting
games”?), and drink alcoholic beverages. The rest of their holidays are
roughly the same as those of Huá (Chinese). They are fond of chess and
gambling (literally, “wéiqí (go) and dice games”), backgammon (wòshuò),
and the game of chūpú. The climate is warm and mild, grass and trees are
green in winter, the earth is fat and fertile, and there is much water
and little land. They take a small ring and place it around a
cormorant’s neck, let it enter water and catch fish; they obtain over
one hundred fish per day. The common folk do not have plates or chopping
blocks, instead relying on the leaves of a kind of oak, and using their
hands to eat (their food). They are straightforward by nature, and have
a poetic (lyrical; elegant) air. The females are many and the males are
few (i.e. they have more women than men, or more daughters than sons).
They will not marry a member of the same clan. A man and a woman who
have found pleasure in each other thus are married (If a man and a woman
are pleased with each other, then (this) serves as marriage). When a
wife enters the husband’s house, she must first straddle a dog, and then
she may see her husband. The married women are not licentious nor
jealous.
死者斂以棺槨、親賓就屍歌舞、妻子兄弟以白布製服。貴人三年殯於外、庶人卜日而瘞。及葬、置屍船上、陸地牽之、或以小
輿。有阿蘇山、其石無故火起接天者、俗以為異、因行禱祭。有如意寶珠、其色青、大如雞卵、夜則有光、云魚眼精也。新羅、百濟皆以倭為大國、多珍物、並敬仰
之、恒通使往來。
The dead they enshroud with two coffins (or “a coffin and an
outer vault”); the kin and guests sing and dance about the corpse, and
the wife, children, and siblings make their dress of white cloth. Noble
persons are left out in a temporary place of rest for three years; as
for the common person, they divine a day and inter (the corpse).
Approaching (the time of) burial, they set the corpse atop a boat, which
they will draw over land, or use a small carriage or palanquin. There
is a Mount Asū (Mt. Aso in Kyushu?); when its rocks spontaneously flame
up and touch heaven, they customarily (or their common folk) take this
to be (a sign of) an abnormality, and therefore conduct prayers and
sacrifices. They have cintamani jewels (wish-granting jewels), which are
blue (or green) in color and the size of a chicken egg; they glow at
night and are called “fisheyes” (or “fish-eye-spirits”). Silla and
Baekje both (or “the people of Silla and Baekje all”) consider Wō to be a
great country, with many rare (and precious) things; what is more, they
respect and look up to it, and they constantly send embassies back and
forth (or “interpreters and ambassadors are constantly coming and
going”).
大業三年、其王多利思比孤遣使朝貢。使者曰：「聞海西菩薩天子重興佛法、故遣朝拜、兼沙門數十人來學佛法。」其國書曰「日出處天子致書日沒處天子無恙」云云。帝覽之不悅、謂鴻臚卿曰：「蠻夷書有無禮者、勿復以聞。」
In
the third year of Dàyè (607 CE), their sovereign, Duōlìsībǐgū, sent an
embassy to pay tribute to the imperial court. The ambassador said, “We
hear that the Bodhisattva, Son of Heaven, west of the sea reverently
exalts the law of the Buddha. Therefore we have sent (an embassy) to pay
respect to you at your court, alongside several tens of śramaṇas to
come and study the Buddhadharma (i.e. Buddhism).” The letter from their
sovereign (official mission statement) stated, “The Son (Child) of
Heaven in the place where the sun rises sends a letter to the Son of
Heaven in the place where the sun sets. We hope that you are without
illness or trouble,” and so on and so forth. The Emperor viewed this and
was displeased. He called the high minister of vassal affairs (Hónglú
Qing) and said, “As for those letters of the (southern/eastern)
barbarians which are lacking of courtesy, do not let me hear of them
again.”
明年、上遣文林郎裴清使於倭國。度百濟、行至竹島、南望○羅國、經都斯麻國、迥在大海中。又東至一支國、又至竹斯國、又東至秦王國。其人同於華夏、以為夷洲、疑不能明也。又經十餘國、達於海岸。自竹斯國以東、皆附庸於倭。
The
next year, (the Emperor) sent the Young Man of the Grove of Letters,
Pei Qing, on a mission to the Wō country. Having passed Baekje, he went
to Bamboo Island, which on the south faces Daamla country (Jeju
Island?), (and he then) went through Dusima country (Tsushima), (all)
located far apart amidst the great sea. Again moving eastward, he
reached Yizhi country (Iki Island?), then Zhusi country (i.e.
Tsukushi-no kuni of northern Kyushu?), and, moving eastward yet again,
he reached Qinwang country (“country of the King of Qin,” perhaps
Suou-no kuni of westernmost Honshu). Its people are the same as Huáxià
(“Chinese people”), and consider (it) to be an island of barbarians;
this is doubtful, but cannot be clarified. He further went through over
ten more countries and arrived at a seashore. From Zhusi country to the
east, all are vassals to Wō.
倭王遣小德阿輩臺、從數百人、設儀仗、鳴鼓角來迎。後十日、又遣大禮哥多毗、
從二百餘騎郊勞。既至彼都、其王與清相見、大悅、曰：「我聞海西有大隋、禮義之國、故遣朝貢。我夷人、僻在海隅、不聞禮義、是以稽留境内、不即相見。今故
清道飾館、以待大使、冀聞大國惟新之化。」清答曰：「皇帝德並二儀、澤流四海、以王慕化、故遣行人來此宣諭。」既而引清就館。其後清遣人謂其王曰：「朝命
既達、請即戒塗。」於是設宴享以遣清、復令使者隨清來貢方物。此後遂絶。
The Wō sovereign dispatched the
Lesser Virtue, Abèitái, with several hundred followers to set up
honorary banners and arms and to greet the embassy with the sounding of
drums and horns. Ten days later, he additionally dispatched the Greater
Courtesy, Gēduōpí, with over two hundred mounts to greet and express his
regards (to the embassy). (After the embassy) had arrived at their
capital city, their sovereign met with Qing, and was greatly pleased. He
said, “I have heard that, west of the sea, there is the Great Sui, a
country of courtesy and justice, and therefore I have sent (an embassy)
to pay tribute to your court. I am a person of the (eastern) barbarians,
tucked away in a corner of the sea, (where) courtesy and justice do not
reach one’s ears, and because of this I have remained within my
demesne, not immediately (going to) see you. Now that I have cleaned the
roads and bedecked the halls with which to receive you, Ambassador, I
look forward to hearing about the innovative changes of (your) great
country.” Qing said in response, “The Emperor’s virtue equals that of
the Two Standards (Heaven and Earth, or Sun and Moon), his moistening
grace flows to the Four Seas. Because Your Majesty has turned to adore
his influence, he has sent (me as) a messenger to come here and explain
things to you clearly.” Then, he led Qing to the hall (meant for housing
the embassy). Some time afterward, Qing dispatched a person to tell
their sovereign, “Orders from our court have arrived. Please prepare for
our departure forthright.” Thereupon he laid out a royal banquet by
means of which to send Qing off, and he again ordered a messenger to
accompany Qing to come and present tribute of local products. After
this, (communications with the Wō country) ceased.
Judging from the text of the Book of Sui, it seems to be most likely
that the "Wo" people were a Japonic-speaking population, though there
are few clearly identifiable words. It is clear from both the placement
of the section on Wo (at the very end of the volume containing records
of interactions between China and foreign nations or states) and the
manner in which Wo is described that the Chinese of the time (early
Tang) considered the Wo to be the weirdest of the weird in almost every
regard (except for their holidays, which are mentioned to be largely the
same as those of the Chinese).
There is one line that suggests
the possibility of the contemporary coexistence of at least two distinct
populations in Japan. One population, the dominant "Wo" (probably
Japonic) people, were ubiquitous and exotic, but had diplomatic contact
with China. A second population, that of "Qinwang-guo" (Country of the
King of Qin), seemed to be of Chinese origin or affinity and was
centered in a province that appears to correspond to the westernmost end
of Honshu (in the Chuugoku region). The Chinese-like minority group was
subject to the Wo. However, even the Chinese historian who wrote this
text explicitly mentioned that he considered the report of this land of
Chinese-like subjects of the Wo to lack credibility.
Location and geography of Wo:
*Wō country is located three thousand
li by water and land southeast of Baekje and Silla, on mountainous island(s) amidst the great sea.
*More than thirty "countries" (
i.e. states/provinces of Wo) held association with the Middle Kingdom in the time of the Wei Dynasty.
(Whether
this refers to Wei of Cao Cao or Wei of the Xianbei is not mentioned,
but this passage reveals that Wo country must have had more than thirty
internal territorial subdivisions, with a name similar to but possibly
having greater independence than the later Japanese
kuni.)
*The
country’s borders are five months’ travel east-west, three months’
travel north-south, extending to the sea in every direction.
*The lay of the land is high in the east and low in the west.
*They have their capital at Yámíduī, which is what is called Yámǎtái in the Wèi Zhì.
*The ancients say that it is 12,000
li
from the border of Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery, located
east of Kuàijī (ancient northern Zhejiang), close to(/similar to?)
Dān’ěr (ancient Hainan).
(How does this figure quoted from "the
ancients" mesh with the statement that Wo is located 3,000 Chinese miles
over land and water away from Baekje and Silla? I suppose that the
3,000 Chinese miles figure might refer to the distance between the
borders of Baekje and Silla on the one hand and the border of Wo on the
other (
i.e. the distance between southern Korea and northern
Kyushu), whereas the 12,000 Chinese miles figure might refer to the
distance from the northeasternmost Chinese territories (Lelang and
Daifang) to the capital of Wo, Yamidui/Yamatai (
i.e. the
distance between northern Korea and central Honshu). However, the only
land located "east of Kuaiji" is Okinawa, and the only major islands
that are reasonably "close to Dan'er" are Taiwan and Luzon.)
*There are one hundred twenty
gyünni (< Proto-Japanese *
kuni “state, province, country”), which are like the Middle Kingdom’s provincial or county governors. They establish one
iniyik for every eighty households, who is like the present village headman. Ten
iniyik belong to one
gyünni.
(
Gyünni seems likely to be a transcription of the ancestor of Japanese
kuni
"state, province, country," but this word has been interpreted to mean
"a provincial or county governor" because of either a change in the
meaning of the Japanese word or else a mistake on the part of the
contemporary interpreter/translator. The Japonic word that has been
transcribed as
iniyik is unclear; it might refer to a hypothetical territorial unit, *
inaka,
whose historical Japanese descendant refers to "the countryside, a
rural place" or "one's hometown, the area where one was born or where
one's birth family resides," or it might refer to a post, such as
Japanese
negi "a certain rank of Shinto priest; a word for Shinto clergy in general.")
*There are perhaps 100,000 households.
*The
climate is warm and mild, grass and trees are green in winter, the
earth is fat and fertile, and there is much water and little land.
*There
is a Mount Asū (Mt. Aso in Kumamoto?); when its rocks spontaneously
flame up and touch heaven, they customarily (or their common folk) take
this to be (a sign of) an abnormality, and therefore conduct prayers and
sacrifices.
*The next year, (the Emperor) sent the Young Man of
the Grove of Letters, Pei Qing, on a mission to the Wō country. Having
passed Baekje, he went to Bamboo Island, which on the south faces Daamla
country (Jeju Island?), (and he then) went through Dusima country
(Tsushima), (all) located far apart amidst the great sea. Again moving
eastward, he reached Yizhi country (Iki Island?), then Zhusi country
(i.e. Tsukushi-no kuni of northern Kyushu?), and, moving eastward yet
again, he reached Qinwang country (“country of the King of Qin,” perhaps
Suou-no kuni < Suwau-no kuni of westernmost Honshu). ... He further
went through over ten more countries and arrived at a seashore. From
Zhusi country to the east, all are vassals to Wō. The Wō sovereign
dispatched the Lesser Virtue, Abèitái, with several hundred followers to
set up honorary banners and arms and to greet the embassy with the
sounding of drums and horns. Ten days later, he additionally dispatched
the Greater Courtesy, Gēduōpí, with over two hundred mounts to greet and
express his regards (to the embassy). (After the embassy) had arrived
at their capital city, their sovereign met with Qing, and was greatly
pleased.
(This passage suggests that some small islands between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula,
e.g.
Iki, Tsushima, and Jeju, may have remained independent from Baekje
(southwestern Korea) and Wo (Japan) at the time. On the other hand, the
text only states explicitly that all the "countries" from Zhusi
(Tsukushi) to the east are subordinate to Wo, but the previous passage
about Mt. Asu (probably Mt. Aso, which is located in Kumamoto
Prefecture, former
Higo-no kuni, even earlier
Hi-no kuni, which is not east but rather south of
Tsukushi-no kuni) suggests that some other areas that were not east of Zhusi (assuming that the identification of this province with the
Tsukushi of Japanese history is correct) also belonged to Wo.)
It
seems that, at least by the time of the Sui Dynasty (late sixth to
early seventh century CE), something very similar to historical Japan
had formed, though it was still called (perhaps derogatorily)
Wo
by the Chinese. This corresponds to (roughly the middle of) the Asuka
Period of Japanese historiography. At least some among the
Wo people (
e.g. their sovereign) were already in the habit of referring to their country as "the land where the sun rises" (
i.e.
"Japan," which is written with Chinese characters that literally mean
"sun-origin"), but this name had not yet been "approved" by the Chinese
authorities.
